By Hiltruda Nyokabi*
"By acting to counter threats to our planet that go beyond national boundaries, you are demonstrating that global threats deserve global action."[i]
Climate change, environmental degradation, and armed conflict are three of the most pressing issues facing our world today due to their extensive and interconnected impacts on humanitarian crises. This include threats to human health,[ii] war and human rights abuses,[iii] and devastating loss of civilian life.[iv] However, what happens when these threats intersect? Climate change, driven primarily by human activities such as deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide, profoundly impacts our planet. The atmosphere, consisting of various gases, shields life on Earth by blocking harmful ultraviolet radiation and maintaining temperature balance.[v] However, industrialisation and burning fossil fuels - currently supplying around 80% of the world's energy – have increased carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere,[vi] causing global warming through the greenhouse effect.According to NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies, global temperatures have increased by at least 1.1° Celsius (1.9° Fahrenheit) since 1880, with most of the warming occurring since 1975.[vii] This warming intensifies resource scarcity and worsens existing social, economic, and environmental factors, triggering competition for food and water.[viii] For instance, diminishing arable land and unpredictable water sources have exacerbated tensions between farming and herding communities in many places, including central Mali.[ix] In Iraq, water scarcity, rising temperatures, and dust storms put heightened pressure on inter-communal relations.[x]
On the other hand, environmental degradation involves the deterioration of the environment through the depletion of resources,[xi] often driven by human activities such as overpopulation, urbanisation, and industrialisation. This degradation has led to the loss of biodiversity, water scarcity, pollution, and desertification; potentially causing resource conflicts.[xii]
Since the early 1970s, there has been increasing concern that environmental disruption is likely to increase the number of disputes originating from competition for scarce resources.[xiii]Several sources support this assertion, including Lodgaard's argument that 'where there is environmental degradation or acute scarcity of vital resources, war may follow'.[xiv]
Armed conflicts, whether international[xv] or non-international[xvi], heighten environmental degradation and climate change impacts. International conflicts between states can escalate, leading to widespread destruction and loss of life, while non-international conflicts often involving non-state armed groups, create significant humanitarian challenges, including displacement and restricted access to aid.
Armed conflicts often result in significant environmental destruction, either as collateral damage or through direct environmental harm, such as contaminating land and water sources. These effects can last for decades. For instance, the use of landmines, cluster munitions, and other explosive remnants of war can restrict access to agricultural land and pollute soils and water sources with metals and toxic energetic materials.[xvii] The armed conflict between Ukraine and Russia that began in late February 2022 exemplifies the far-reaching environmental consequences of such conflicts, particularly concerning water resources and management.[xviii]
The intersection of climate change, environmental degradation, and armed conflict creates a vicious cycle whereby each factor enhances the others. As illustrated above, climate change and environmental degradation lead to resource scarcity thus fuelling conflicts. These conflicts, in turn, cause environmental damage, worsening the impacts of climate change. As resources become scarcer and environments more degraded, the likelihood of further conflicts increases, creating a continuous loop of destruction and instability.
International Humanitarian Law solutions
International Humanitarian Law (IHL) provides a framework to mitigate the environmental impact of armed conflicts and address the challenges posed by climate change and environmental degradation. Key IHL principles include:
- Protection of the environment: The Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I emphasize the importance of protecting the environment during armed conflicts. Article 35(3) of Additional Protocol I prohibits military operations that cause widespread, long-term, and severe damage to the natural environment.[xix]
- Prevention of unnecessary damage: Parties to the conflict are required to take all feasible measures to prevent or minimise incidental damage to the natural environment. Article 55 of Additional Protocol I states that parties must not use methods or means of warfare that are intended to cause widespread, long-term, and severe damage to the environment.[xx]
- Environmental impact assessments: Encouraged under Protocol 1 and the Paris Agreement,[xxi] parties to armed conflicts should conduct environmental impact assessments to evaluate and minimise the ecological consequences of military operations before, during, and after the conflicts.[xxii] Protocol I encourages parties to consider the protection of the natural environment when developing military plans and considering the choice of weapons and tactics.[xxiii] The Paris Agreement also emphasizes the importance of promoting sustainable development[xxiv] and considering environmental impacts in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.[xxv]
- Training and civic education: Article 83(1) of Additional Protocol I stresses the importance of disseminating IHL among military personnel and the civilian population to ensure compliance with environmental protection rules.[xxvi] The Paris Agreement encourages capacity-building efforts to enhance understanding and implementation of climate change-related policies.[xxvii]
- International cooperation: Effective management of the intersection of climate change, environmental degradation, and armed conflict requires international cooperation. The Paris Agreement promotes global collaboration to support climate change mitigation and adaptation, sharing best practices and resources.[xxviii]
Challenges and future directions
Despite progress, significant challenges remain in addressing the nexus of climate change, environmental degradation, and armed conflict. These challenges are most pronounced in fragile states already grappling with weak governance, high rates of poverty and income equality, as well as current or historical violent conflict.[xxix] One major challenge is the enforcement of IHL provisions related to environmental protection. Ensuring compliance requires continuous monitoring, accountability mechanisms, and the political goodwill of state and non-state actors. Achieving this compliance becomes especially challenging with non-cooperative states.
Moreover, the evolving nature of climate change and its impacts necessitates adaptive and forward-looking approaches. The international community must continue to invest in research, technology, and capacity-building to better understand and respond to emerging environmental and security threats. Further, guiding principles for future investments may include funding and supporting the climate resilience targeted toward the fragile and conflict-affected states, pilot-integrated, multi-sector approaches, that address short and long-term risks, and efforts that expand beyond the community level.[xxx]
Conclusion
The intersection of climate change, environmental degradation, and armed conflict presents an urgent global challenge. By leveraging International Humanitarian Law and fostering international cooperation, we can develop strategies at individual, community, national, and international levels to address these issues. Ensuring environmental protection during conflicts, preventing damage, conducting environmental impact assessments, and promoting education are vital steps toward a sustainable and peaceful world.
[i] Fortinsky Sarah, 'UN adopts first treaty governing the high seas' The Hill, 19 June 2023 —[ii] World Health Organisation, 'Climate change' World Health Organisation, 12 October 2023 — [iii] Donohoe Martin, 'Causes and health consequences of environmental degradation and social injustice' Soc Sci Med. 2003 Feb — [iv] Amnesty International, 'Armed conflict', 2024 — [v] National Geographic, 'Atmosphere', 2023 — [vi] Client Earth Communications, 'Fossil fuels and climate change: the facts' Client Earth, 18 February 2022 —[vii] NASA Earth Observatory, 'World of change: Global temperatures' — [viii] United Nations, 'Climate Action: Five ways the climate crisis impacts human security' — [ix] United Nations, 'Climate Action: Five ways the climate crisis impacts human security' — [x] United Nations, 'Climate Action: Five ways the climate crisis impacts human security' — [xi] Pradip Kumar Maurya, Sk Ajim Ali, Anwar Ahmad, Qiaoqiao Zhou, Jonatas Da Silva Castro, Ezzat Khane, Ali Hazrat, 'An introduction to environmental degradation: Causes, consequence, and mitigation' in Vinod Kumar, Jogendra Singh and Pankaj Kumar (eds) Environmental degradation: Causes and remediation strategies Research Gate, 2020, 1.
[xii] Nils Petter Gleditsch, Armed conflict and the environment, Springer Link, 2015.
[xiii] Carsten F Ronnfeldt, 'Three generations of environment and security research' 34(4) Journal of Peace Research (1997) 473-482.
[xiv] Lodgaard Sveere, 'Environmental security, world order, and environmental conflict resolution' In Nils Petter Gleditsch (ed) Conversion and the Environment, PRIO Report, 1992, 115-136.
[xv] The Geneva Conventions, 12 August 1949, UNTS No. 17512, common article 2.
[xvi] The Geneva Conventions, common article 3.
[xvii] Conflict and Environment Observatory, 'How does War damage the environment?' 4 June 2020 —[xviii] Oleksandra Shumivola, Klement Tockner, Alexander Sukhodolov, et al. 'Impact of the Russia–Ukraine armed conflict on water resources and water infrastructure' Nature Sustainability (2023).
[xix] Protocol Additional to The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, UNTS No. 17512, Article 35(1).
[xx] Additional Protocol I, Article 55.
[xxi] [xxii] International Committee of the Red Cross, 'State expert meeting on international humanitarian law: protecting the environment in armed conflicts' 2023, 8.
[xxiii] Additional Protocol I, Articles 35 and 55.
[xxiv] Paris Agreement, 12 December 2015, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2316, paragraph 11 of the Preamble.
[xxv] Paris Agreement, Article 2.
[xxvi] Additional Protocol I, Article 83(1).
[xxvii] Paris Agreement, Article 11, paragraph 1.
[xxviii] Paris Agreement, Article 7, paragraph 7; Article 10, paragraph 2 and Article 11, paragraph 3.
[xxix]Whitaker, Emma and Levine, 'Addressing the climate-conflict nexus: Evidence, insights, and future directions' Mercy Corps, 2021, 1.
[xxx] Whitaker, 'Addressing the climate-conflict nexus', 11.